1. Calligraphic styles

1.1 Thuluth (9^th century)

Thuluth, literally meaning “a third”, is the most complex style of Arabic calligraphy. It first appeared in the 9^th century and reached its peak of development in the 13^th and 14^th centuries. Considered a benchmark for assessing the beauty of other styles, it was mainly used by the Mamluks (14^th and 15^th centuries).

Thuluth is characterized by rounded shapes and a smooth, rhythmic movement, ideal for page headings. The letters are written in two-thirds or one-third scale in relation to the original letter. It is frequently found in mosques and caravanserais, as well as on tombstones, madrasa inscriptions and ornamental plaques.

It was particularly encouraged by the Mamluk Sultan Rukn-Ad-Dine Baybars 1^st (1260 – 1277) for decoration on glass, various metals, ivory, textiles, wood engraving and stone carving.

1.2 Muhaqqaq (10^th century)

Muhaqqaq is one of the main calligraphic styles of Arabic script. The term muhaqqaq means “ornate” or “embellished”, reflecting the aesthetic characteristics of this style. It emerged in Iraq and Egypt in the 10^th century. This majestic style is widely used for copying the Qur’an and other religious texts. It reached its apogee during the Mamluk period in Egypt and Syria (13^th-15^th centuries).

Muhaqqaq is characterized by great meticulousness, and for decades was considered the benchmark for religious transcription. It is distinguished by its elegant, curved lines and the use of large white spaces between letters and words. Particular attention is paid to letter proportions and regular spacing, creating visual harmony and aesthetic balance.

1.3 Ghubârî (9^th century)

Ghubârî script, also known as “dust” script, was originally designed for ultra-confidential missions and the transmission of postal messages by carrier pigeon. Its reduced format later gave rise to miniature Qur’ans, no more than five centimetres high. It is characterized by its small size and is often associated with the naskhî and ruq’â styles.

Historically, Ghubârî script was used to copy short Qur’anic verses renowned for their protective power, such as the Throne verse of Sura al-Baqâra (II, 255). It is mainly found on octagonal miniature Qur’an manuscripts, scrolls and talismanic writings.

1.4 Zoomorphic style

Zoomorphism, or the use of animals in Arabic calligraphy, has a long history throughout the various cultures of Islamic civilization. Calligraphers developed techniques to give Arabic letters animal shapes such as birds, fish, lions and horses. Over the centuries, this practice evolved to reflect the artistic and cultural influences of different geographical areas. Arabic calligraphy, deeply rooted in Islamic culture, has thus incorporated various artistic and stylistic elements over time.

2.1 Zayn al-dîn Abd al-Rahmân b. Yûsuf (1367-1442)

Known as Ibn Sâ’igh, Zayn al-dîn Abd al-Rahmân b. Yûsuf was a scribe (kâtib) for the Circassian Mamluk sultan Farâj b. Barqûq (1386-1411). Among his notable achievements are several Qur’ans, one of which stands out for its imposing size, measuring one meter by fifty centimeters. He is also credited with the creation of Qur’anic inscriptions, including the text of Sura al-Fath (Koran: XLVIII), which was carefully engraved inside the Prophet’s mosque in Medina. However, his most remarkable contribution is the introduction of ijâza into the domain of calligraphy.